Matthew 1

[JLG]

10)

The Mesopotamians did not view physical death as the ultimate end of life. The dead continued an animated existence in the form of a spirit, designated by the Sumerian term gidim and its Akkadian equivalent, eṭemmu. The eṭemmu is best understood as a ghost. Its etiology is described in the Old Babylonian Atrahasis epic I 206-230, which recounts the creation of humans from the blood of the slain god We-ilu. The text uses word play to connect the etemmu to a divine quality: We-ilu is characterized as one who has ṭemu, “understanding” or “intelligence”. Thus, humans were thought to be composed of a corporeal body and some type of divine insight.

- The dead become a spirit or a ghost with a divine quality!

- It has understanding or intelligence!

- Thus humans are composed of a corporeal body and some type of divine insight!

 

[JLG]

11)

It must be stressed that Mesopotamian notions of the physical body and the eṭemmu do not represent a strict body/soul dualism. Unlike the concept of psyche in Classical Greek thought, the eṭemmu was closely associated with the physical corpse. Some texts even speak of the eṭemmu as if it were identical to the body. For instance, the eṭemmu is sometimes described as “sleeping” in the grave (Scurlock, “Death” 1892) – a description that echoes accounts of the corpse or pagaru. Further, the eṭemmu retained corporeal needs such as hunger and thirst, a characteristic that will be discussed in more detail below. It also unclear whether the eṭemmu existed within the living body prior to death (and was thus an entity that separated from the body), or whether it only came into existence at the moment of physical death (and was thus an entity created by the transformation of some physical life-force). In either case, upon physical death the status of the deceased changed from awilu to eṭemmu. Death was therefore a transitionary stage during which humans were transformed from one state of existence to another.

- There is no strict body/soul dualism!

- The two are associated!

- In some texts, the etemmu was identical to the body!

- It is sometimes described as “sleeping” in the grave!

- It retained corporeal needs such as hunger and thirst!

- It is unclear if the etemmu existed within the living body prior to death or whether it only came into existence at the moment of physical death!

- Death appeared as a transitionary stage during which humans were transformed from one state of existence to another!

 

[JLG]

12)

The eṭemmu was not immediately transported to the netherworld after bodily death, but had to undergo an arduous journey in order to reach it. Proper burial and mourning of the corpse was essential for the eṭemmu's transition to the next world. Provided that the necessary funerary rites were performed, the ghost was required to cross a demon-infested steppe, pass over the Khuber River with the assistance of an individual named Silushi/Silulim or Khumut-tabal (the latter meaning “Quick, take [me] there!”), and be admitted through the seven gates of the netherworld city with the permission of the gatekeeper, Bidu (“Open up!”).

- The etemmu had to travel an arduous journey to reach the netherworld!

- Proper burial and mourning of the corpse was essential before crossing a demon-infested steppe, pass over the Khuber River with the assistance of an individual before being admitted through the seven gates of the netherworld city with the permission of the gatekeeper!

 

[JLG]

13)

Upon arrival in the netherworld, the eṭemmu was “judged” by the court of the Annunaki and assigned a place in its new subterranean community. This judgment and placement was not of an ethical nature and had nothing to do with the deceased's merits during its lifetime. Instead, it had rather a clerical function and confirmed, according to the rules of the netherworld, the etemmu's entrance into its new home.

- Then the etemmu was judged by the court of the Annunaki and assigned a place in its new subterranean community!

- But the deceased’s merits during the lifetime are not taken into account!

 

[JLG]

14)

Yet the judgment and placement of the eṭemmu in the netherworld was not entirely arbitrary or neutral. Just as social hierarchies existed within living communities, so too did a hierarchy between ghosts exist in the “great city” of the dead. The status of an eṭemmu in the netherworld was determined by two factors: the social status of the deceased while alive, and the post-mortem care its body and grave or cult statue received from the living on earth. Kings like Urnamma and Gilgamesh remained rulers and judges of the dead in the netherworld, and priests remained priests. In this respect the social order underground mimicked that above. Some texts such as Gilgamesh and Enkidu and the Netherworld indicate that the deceased's lot in the underworld depended on the number of children one had. The more descendents, the more privileged the eṭemmu's existence in the netherworld, for there were more relatives to ensure the performance of necessary post-mortem rituals.

- A hierarchy between the ghosts existed in the “great city” of the dead!

- Importance of the social status of the deceased while alive!

- Importance of the post-mortem care of the body and grave or cult statue from the living on earth!

- The more descendents, the more privileged the etemmu’s existence has in the netherworld!

 

[JLG]

15)

In the underworld the eṭemmu could be reunited with relatives who had preceded them in death. It should be noted, however, that although the eṭemmu was capable of recognizing and being recognized by the ghosts of people the deceased had known during life, these ghosts do not seem to have retained the deceased's unique personality traits in the netherworld.

- The etemmu could be reunited with relatives who had died before!

- But the ghosts couldn’t retain the deceased's unique traits in the netherworld!

- Thus we can see a lack of precision!

 

[JLG]

16)

In addition to the eṭemmu, living beings were also thought to be composed of a wind-like emanation called in Akkadian the zaqiqu (or ziqiqu). This spirit was sexless, probably birdlike, and was associated with dreaming because it could depart the body while the individual was asleep. Both the eṭemmu and the zaqiqu descended to the netherworld after physical death. Aside from descriptions of dreams, however, the eṭemmu is mentioned far more prominently than the zaqiqu in Mesopotamian literature. This may be due to the fact that, unlike the eṭemmu, the zaqiqu was considered relatively harmless and unable to interfere either positively or negatively in the affairs of the living. It was therefore natural that a greater number of Mesopotamian texts would focus on proper ritual care for the eṭemmu, since these rites were intended to pacify the spirit of the dead so that it would not haunt the living.

- Living beings were also composed of a wind-like emanation!

- it was sexless, probably birdlike, associated with dreaming (it could depart the body while the individual was asleep)!

- Thus after death, there still were the etemmu and the zaqiqu!

- At the difference of the etemmu, the zaqiqu was unable to interfere in the affairs of the living!

 

[JLG]

17)
The Relationship Between the Dead & the Living
As indicated above, the fate of the eṭemmu after corporeal death depended on performance of the proper post-mortem rituals by the living. First, funerary rites—specifically burial of the corpse and ritual mourning— at the time of death were necessary for the eṭemmu's successful journey to and integration into the netherworld. Second, continued cultic offerings at the deceased's grave or (at least in the pre-Sargonic period) cult statue were required to ensure the eṭemmu's comfortable existence in the netherworld. We have seen that the eṭemmu retained the needs of a living being. Most importantly, it required sustenance. Yet the netherworld was devoid of any palatable nourishment. As the Death of Urnamma articulates, “The food of the netherworld is bitter and the water is brackish” (Cohen 103). The ghost was therefore dependent on the living for subsistence, which was provided through offerings of food and beverage. Absence of offerings reduced the eṭemmu to a beggar's existence in the netherworld. The primary responsibility for performing these offerings fell to the eldest son of the deceased. Scurlock connects post-mortem duties with Mesopotamian property laws by positing that this “is presumably why [the eldest son] also customarily received an extra share of the inheritance” (“Death” 1888).

- Once again, we can notice the importance of the proper post-mortem rituals by the living!

- Importance of funerary rites (burial of the corpse and ritual mourning)!

- Importance of continued cultic offerings at the deceased’s grave or cult statue!

- The ghost was dependent on the living for subsistence (offerings of food and beverage)!

- Responsibility of the eldest son of the deceased to care for him!

- It explains why the eldest son received an extra share of the inheritance!

 

[JLG]

18)

Both non-elites and elites required such rituals, but the necessity of death cults for the elite was particularly emphasized. The primary difference between death cults for the non-elite and elite appears to have been that, for ordinary people, only the deceased personally known to their descendants –such as immediate family— required individual eṭemmu cults. Distant relatives seem to have “merged together in a sort of corporate ancestor” (Scurlock, “Death” 1889). In contrast, royal cult offerings were made individually to all ancestors of the reigning king.

- Death cults required for non-elites and elites!

 

[JLG]

19)

As long as offerings continued regularly, the eṭemmu remained at peace in the netherworld. Pacified ghosts were friendly and could be induced to aid the living, or at least were prevented from harming them. A person who did not receive proper burial rites or cultic offerings, however, became a restless ghost or vicious demon. Some cases where this could occur included people who were left unburied, suffered a violent death or other unnatural end, or died unmarried. Vicious ghosts pursued, seized, bound, or even physically abused their victims, and could also possess victims by entering into them via their ears. They could also haunt the dreams of the living. Sickness, both physical and psychological, and misfortune were often believed to be caused by the anger of a restless eṭemmu . For example, the suffering servant of the Babylonian poem Ludlul bēl nēmeqi deplores his fate:

Debilitating Disease is let loose upon me:
An Evil Wind has blown [from the] horizon,
Headache has sprung up from the surface of the underworld….
The irresistible [Ghost] left Ekur
[The Lamastu-demon came] down from the mountain. (Lines 50-55, Poem of the Righteous Sufferer)

- Offerings keep the etemmu at peace in the netherworld!

- Pacified ghosts were friendly and could be induced to aid the living!

- Otherwise they became restless ghosts or vicious demons!

- They could pursue, seize, bound or physically abuse their victims!

- They could possess them by entering into them via their ears!

- They could also haunt the dreams of the living!

 

[JLG]

20)

The Mesopotamians developed many magical means of dealing with vengeful ghosts. Some methods included the tying of magical knots, the manufacturing of amulets, smearing on magical ointments, drinking magical potions, the burial of a surrogate figurine representing the ghost, and the pouring libations while reciting incantations.

- They developed many magical means of dealing with vengeful ghosts (magical knots, amulets, magical ointments, drinking magical potions, the burial of a surrogate figurine representing the ghost, and the pouring libations while reciting incantations)!

 

[JLG]

21)

Conclusion
In Mesopotamian conceptions of the afterlife, life did not end after physical death but continued in the form of an eṭemmu, a spirit or ghost dwelling in the netherworld. Further, physical death did not sever the relationship between living and deceased but reinforced their bond through a new set of mutual obligations. Just as the well-being of the ghost in the netherworld was contingent upon offerings from the living, so too was the well being of the living contingent upon on the proper propitiation and favor of the dead. To a notable degree, these afterlife beliefs reflected and reinforced the social structure of kinship ties in Mesopotamian communities.

- Maintain and reinforce the bonds between living and deceased through a new set of mutual obligations!

- Well, nothing is new, we can find all the beliefs and practices of today’s religion in the past!

- Demons have always maintained the tradition to control human beings!

- The devil was the first to start rebelling against Yah.weh!

- His demons maintained the traditions!

- The religious, political and commercial powers have always served their masters!

- They have always worked together to control mankind and to oppose Yah.weh!

- Human beings have always been good slaves to their masters!

- It’s not going to save them!

-They will follow their masters’ fate which is destruction!

- Final destruction instead of eternal life!

- Bad trick but it has always been working!

- Yah.weh and Jesus have been warning them and will do it till the end!

- The majority never listens!

- But they will be told till the end!

 

[JLG]

Assyrian beliefs about the afterlife seem to mirror broader Mesopotamian views, where the afterlife was a uniform, dismal realm regardless of one's life actions. The underworld, ruled by Ereshkigal, was a place of darkness and inactivity, not a site for reward or punishment based on earthly deeds.

 

[JLG]

1)

The ancient Egyptians believed the afterlife was an eternal journey and not an end, where the soul continued after the body died and could achieve everlasting joy if justified by the gods. After death, the soul was guided to the Hall of Truth for judgment by Osiris and 42 judges, where its heart was weighed against the feather of Ma’at, symbolizing truth and justice. If the heart was lighter, the soul entered the paradise called the Field of Reeds (or Aaru), a place of eternal happiness and reunion with loved ones. If heavier, the soul was devoured by the monster Amut and ceased to exist, the worst fate. Funerary texts like the Book of the Dead helped guide the soul through this journey. The afterlife was viewed as a continuation of life, rewarding a balanced and harmonious life lived according to ma’at.

- Eternal journey!

- Hall of Truth for judgment by Osiris and 42 judges!

- The heart is weighed against the feather of Ma’at!

- if lighter, the soul entered paradise!

- If heavier, the soul was devoured and ceased to exist!

- Afterlife = continuation of life rewarding a balanced and harmonious life lived according to ma’at!

 

[JLG]

2)

The ancient Egyptians believed that life on earth was only one part of an eternal journey which ended, not in death, but in everlasting joy. When one's body failed, the soul did not die with it but continued on toward an afterlife where one received back all that one had thought lost.

One was born on earth through the benevolence of the gods and the deities known as The Seven Hathors then decreed one's fate after birth; the soul then went on to live as good a life as it could in the body it had been given for a time. When death came, it was only a transition to another realm where, if one were justified by the gods, one would live eternally in a paradise known as The Field of Reeds. The Field of Reeds (sometimes called The Field of Offerings), known to the Egyptians as A'aru, was a mirror image of one's life on earth. The aim of every ancient Egyptian was to make that life worth living eternally and, as far as the records indicate, they did their very best at that.

- Death = everlasting joy!

- Life = the soul received a body by the gods!

- Death = transition!

- Paradise if justified by the gods!

- Life = preparation for eternal life!

 

[JLG]

3)

The gods were considered one's close friends and benefactors who imbued every day with meaning. Hathor was always close at hand as The Lady of the Sycamore, a tree goddess, who provided shade and comfort but was at the same time presiding over the heavenly Nile River, the Milky Way as a cosmic force and, as Lady of the Necropolis, opened the door for the departed soul to the afterlife. She was also present at every festival, wedding, and funeral as The Lady of Drunkeness who encouraged people to lighten their hearts by drinking beer.

The other gods and goddesses of Egypt are also depicted as intimately concerned with the life and welfare of human beings. During one's earthly journey they provided the living with all of their needs and, after death, they appeared to comfort and guide the soul. Goddesses like Selket, Nephthys, and Qebhet guided and protected the newly arrived souls in the afterlife; Qebhet even brought them cool, refreshing water. Anubis, Thoth, and Osiris brought them to judgment and rewarded or punished them. The popular image of the Egyptians as death obsessed could not be more wrong; if anything, the ancient Egyptians were obsessed with life and living it abundantly.

- gods = close friends and benefactors!

- gods = concerned with the life and welfare of human beings!

- gods = judged and rewarded or punished human beings!

- The ancient Egyptians were obsessed with life and living it abundantly!

 

[JLG]

4)

The scholar James F. Romano notes:

In surveying the evidence that survives from antiquity, we are left with the overall impression that most Egyptians loved life and were willing to overlook its hardships. Indeed, the perfect afterlife was merely an ideal version of their earthly existence. Only the travails and petty annoyances that bothered them in their lifetimes would be missing in the afterlife; all else, they hoped, would be as it was on earth. (cited in Nardo, 9-10)

• The afterlife was an ideal version of the earthly existence!

 

[JLG]

5)

The Egyptian afterlife was a mirror-image of life on earth. To the Egyptians, their country was the most blessed and perfect world. In ancient Greek literature one finds the famous stories of the Iliad and the Odyssey depicting great battles in a foreign land and adventures on the return journey; but no such works exist in Egyptian literature because they were not that interested in leaving their homes or their land. The Egyptian work Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor cannot be compared with Homer's works as the characters have nothing in common and the themes are completely different. The sailor had no desire for adventure or glory, he was just going about his master's business and, unlike Odysseus, the sailor is not at all tempted by the magical island with all good things on it because he knows that the only things he wants are back home in Egypt.

- To the Egyptians, their country was the best one!

- They did not want to go abroad!

- Thus there is no Egyptian Odyssey!

 

[JLG]

6)

Egyptian festivals encouraged living life to its fullest and appreciating the moments one had with family and friends. One's home, however modest, was deeply appreciated and so were the members of one's family and larger community. Pets were loved as dearly by the Egyptians as they are in the present day and were preserved in art works, inscriptions, and in writing, often by name. Since life in ancient Egypt was so highly valued it only makes sense that they would have imagined an afterlife which mirrored it closely.

- Everything was done to enjoy life with family, friends, the community and their pets!

 

[JLG]

From Life to Life
Death was only a transition, not a completion, and opened the way to the possibility of eternal happiness. When a person died, the soul was thought to be trapped in the body because it was used to this mortal home. Spells and images painted on tomb walls (known as the Coffin Texts, The Pyramid Texts, and The Egyptian Book of the Dead) and amulets attached to the body, were provided to remind the soul of its continued journey and to calm and direct it to leave the body and proceed on.