"There is general agreement among researchers that children,adolescents, and adults from divorced and remarriedfamilies, in comparison with those from two-parent,nondivorced families, are at increased risk for developingproblems in adjustment (for meta-analyses, see Amato &Keith, 1991a, 1991b) and that those who have undergonemultiple divorces are at a greater risk (Capaldi & Patterson,1991; Kurdek, Fine, & Sinclair, 1995). For themost part, the adjustment of children from divorced andremarried families is similar (Amato & Keith, 1991a;Cherlin & Furstenberg, 1994).
Children from divorcedand remarried families are more likely than children fromnondivorced families to have academic problems, to exhibitexternalizing behaviors and internalizing disorders,to be less socially responsible and competent, and to havelower self-esteem (Amato & Keith, 1991a; Cherlin &Furstenberg, 1994; Hetherington, 1989). They have problemsin their relationships with parents, siblings, andpeers (Amato & Keith, 1991b; Hetherington, 1997).
Normative developmental tasks of adolescence andyoung adulthood, such as attaining intimate relationshipsand increasing social and economic autonomy, seem tobe especially difficult for youths from divorced and remarriedfamilies. Adolescents from divorced and remarriedfamilies exhibit some of the same behavior problemsfound in childhood and, in addition, are more likely todrop out of school, to be unemployed, to become sexuallyactive at an earlier age, to have children out of wedlock,to be involved in delinquent activities and substanceabuse, and to associate with antisocial peers (Amato &Keith, 1991a; Conger & Chao, 1996; Demo & Acock,1996; Elder & Russell, 1996; Hetherington & Clingempeel,1992; McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994; Simons &Chao, 1996; Whitbeck, Simons, & Goldberg, 1996).
Increasedrates of dropping out of high school and of lowsocioeconomic attainment in the offspring of divorcedand remarried families extend across diverse ethnicgroups (Amato & Keith, 1991b); however, the effect isstronger for females than for males (Hetherington, inpress).Adult offspring from divorced and remarried familiescontinue to have more adjustment problems (ChaseLansdale,Cherlin, & Kiernan, 1995; Hetherington, inpress), are less satisfied with their lives, experience lowersocioeconomic attainment, and are more likely to be onwelfare (Amato & Keith, 1991b).
Marital instability alsois higher for adults from divorced and remarried families(Amato & Keith, 1991b; Glenn & Kramer, 1985; Hetherington,in press; McLanahan & Bumpass, 1988; Tzeng &Mare, 1995), in part because of the presence of a set ofrisk factors for divorce, including early sexual activity,adolescent childbearing and marriage, and cohabitation(Booth & Edwards, 1990; Hetherington, 1997). In addition,in comparison with young adults from nondivorcedfamilies, young adults from divorced and remarried familiesexhibit more reciprocated, escalating, negative exchanges,including denial, belligerence, criticism, andcontempt, and less effective problem solving during theirmarital interactions (Hetherington, in press). This patternis probably related to the intergenerational transmissionof divorce, which is reported to be 70% higher in thefirst five years of marriage for adult women from divorcedfamilies than for those whose parents have remained married(Bumpass, Martin, & Sweet, 1991).
Although there is considerable consensus that, onaverage, offspring from divorced and remarried familiesexhibit more problems in adjustment than do those innondivorced, two-parent families, there is less agreementon the size of these effects. Some researchers report thatthese effects are relatively modest, have become smalleras marital transitions have become more common(Amato & Keith, 1991a), and are considerably reducedwhen the adjustment of children preceding the maritaltransition is controlled (Block, Block, & Gjerde, 1986,1988; Cherlin et al., 1991). However, others note that approximately 20%-25% of children in divorced andremarried families, in contrast to 10% of children innondivorced families, have these problems, which is anotable twofold increase (Hetherington, 1989, 1991b;Hetherington & Clingempeel, 1992; Hetherington & Jodl,1994; McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994; Simons & Associates,1996; Zill, Morrison, & Coiro, 1993). Because thesedifficulties in adjustment tend to co-occur and appear asa single behavior-problem cluster (Jessor & Jessor, 1977;Mekos, Hetherington, & Reiss, 1996), the vast majorityof children from divorced families and stepfamilies donot have these problems and eventually develop into reasonablycompetent individuals functioning within thenormal range of adjustment (Emery & Forehand, 1994).This argument is not intended to minimize the importanceof the increase in adjustment problems associated withdivorce and remarriage nor to belittle the fact that childrenoften report their parents' marital transitions to betheir most painful life experience. It is intended to underscorethe research evidence supporting the ability of mostchildren to cope with their parents' divorce and remarriageand to counter the position that children are permanentlyblighted by their parents' marital transitions.
We turn now to an examination of some of the individual,social, economic, and family factors that contributeto the diversity in children's adjustment in divorcedand remarried families. Each factor is discussed as itrelates to the five perspectives on marital transitions.
Children's Adjustment Preceding Divorce andRemarriage
Children whose parents later divorce exhibit poorer adjustmentbefore the breakup (Amato & Booth, 1996;Amato & Keith, 1991a; Block et al., 1986; Cherlin et al.,1991). When antecedent levels of problem behaviors arecontrolled, differences in problem behaviors betweenchildren from divorced and nondivorced families aregreatly reduced (Cherlin et al., 1991; Guidubaldi,Perry, & Nastasi, 1987).
Several alternative interpretationsof these findings can be made.
First, it is likely thatmaladapted parents, dysfunctional family relationships,and inept parenting already have taken their toll on children's adjustment before a divorce occurs. Second, divorcemay be, in part, a result of having to deal with adifficult child. Third, personality problems in a parent,such as emotionality and lack of self-regulation, that leadto both divorce and inept socialization practices also maybe genetically linked to behavior problems in children(Jockin, McGue, & Lykken, 1996; McGue & Lykken,1992).
Children in stepfamilies also exhibit more behaviorproblems before remarriage occurs, and some researchershave speculated that the adaptive difficulties of stepchildrenmay be largely the result of experiences in divorcedfamilies (Furstenberg, 1988). This seems unlikely,because there is an increase in adjustment problems immediatelyafter a marital transition, and because childrenin newly remarried families show more problems thanthose in stabilized, divorced, one-parent households(Hetherington & Clingempeel, 1992) or than those inlonger remarried, stabilized stepfamilies (Hetherington &Jodl, 1994).
Personality and Temperament
Children who have easy temperaments; who are intelligent,socially mature, and responsible; and who exhibitfew behavior problems are better able to cope with theirparents' marital transitions. Stresses associated with divorceand remarriage are likely to exacerbate existingproblems in children (Block et al., 1986; Elder, Caspi, &Van Nguyen, 1992; Hetherington, 1989, 1991b). In particular,children with difficult temperaments or behaviorproblems may elicit negative responses from their parentswho are stressed in coping with their marital transitions.These children also may be less able to adapt to parentalnegativity when it occurs and may be less adept at gainingthe support of people around them (Hetherington, 1989,199 lb; Rutter, 1987).
Competent, adaptable children withsocial skills and attractive personal characteristics, suchas an easy temperament and a sense of humor, are morelikely to evoke positive responses and support and tomaximize the use of available resources that help themnegotiate stressful experiences (Hetherington, 1989; Werner,1988).
What matters? What does not? Five perspectives on the association between marital transitions and children's adjustment. - ResearchGate
In summation, it seems that it is much more difficult for step-children to learn and retain proper social skills than non step-children, for a variety of social and psychological reasons related to the dynamics of step-families, the trauma of divorce and the developmental restraints placed on the child in such circumstances.
